Personal Narrative American Political Institutions

Zitlali Avalos Sunday P. Obazuaye POL 101: American Political Institutions 5 August 2016 Representative Report My name is Zitlali, I am 20 years old, and I am going to be a third year college student at Cal State University, Fullerton this fall. I will be the second person in my family to graduate from college. I am thankful for the support and unconditional love that my family has given me, because without them I would not have made it this far. They have shaped me into the person that I am today, and I know they are proud of who I have become. My parents have given me what they could and have guided me toward the right path that has lead me here today, and I could not be more grateful. My major is Health Science, and I plan to become a Nutritionist. I want to help people lead a healthy lifestyle and achieve their health-related goals. Although I aspire to help people lead a healthy lifestyle, I could never say no to pizza. One of my hobbies is running. I find running to be therapeutic, and the numerous benefits that come from it are a bonus. On my spare time I enjoy reading, walking on the beach, and sometimes shamefully binge watching Netflix. For the most part I would rather be alone, but I appreciate good company. I am a very curious person, and have a thing for mysterious things that I cannot quite understand. I have always preferred to find a holistic way to heal rather than take over the counter medication. I do not hide the way I feel and can be a bitShow MoreRelatedFrederick Douglass s Narrative Of The Life Of Fredrick Douglass, An American Slave1434 Words   |  6 PagesAs the most famous abolitionist African American leader, Fredrick Douglass is a political, historical, and literary figure whose words still reverberate the true meaning of freedom and political, economic, and social equality for all. 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Poverty Of Sharecroppers And Unemployed Industrial Workers

Poverty of Sharecroppers vs Unemployed Industrial Workers Poverty has been a big issue over the past century or so and continues to be a problem to this day in the United States. Due to the Civil War, rural areas and industrial areas were affected by poverty. The poverty of rural sharecroppers in 1877 was different from the poverty of unemployed industrial workers in 1939. Even though both situations were dealing with a form of poverty, both were two completely different situations. There were several major events that happened that caused poverty of rural sharecroppers in 1877. Although there were various events leading up to the poverty of unemployed industrial workers in 1939, poverty in the year of 1877 was just as bad, if not worse, as in the year of 1939. There are several major events that happened after the Civil War that led up to poverty. In 1865, Southern states started issuing out black codes after the Civil War. Black codes were intended to restrain African Americans’ freedom. It made it illegal for an African American to be unemployed or to quit a job, which made them slaves even though they were getting paid low wages. In 1866, the 14th Amendment was passed by Congress, which granted citizenship for all Americans, not just white Americans, but African Americans too. This Amendment got endorsed by the states, which became known as the Reconstruction Amendment two years later in 1868. In 1870, the states were obligated to enforce the 15th Amendment due theShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Importance of the New Deal in the 1920s666 Words   |  3 PagesThe first look at the New Deal was to seek for an economic improvement of multiple working efforts towards relief aid, and towards recovery. The second look at the New Deal was focused towards many depression hit farmers, industrial workers of all races and trade unionist. In the 1920s there was many issues that were in need of resolution. 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Methodist denominations Free Essays

Methodist denominations are today represented by four major churches: the United Methodist Church, the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church and the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church. The present paper describes and compares these four institutions. Historically, the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church is a denomination, composed of African Americans, who adopt and employ Methodism as their religious worship (Bucke, p. We will write a custom essay sample on Methodist denominations or any similar topic only for you Order Now 340). â€Å"The group was organized in 1870 when several black ministers, with the full support of their white counterparts in the former Methodist Episcopal Church, South, met to form an organization that would allow them to establish and maintain their own polity, that is, to ordain their own bishops and ministers without the necessity of them being officially endorsed or appointed by the white-dominated body† (Bucke, p. 342). Nowadays, the organization has its publishing house in Memphis, Tennessee. According to internal documentation concerning leadership, bishops are elected as superintendents of the church and can perform their duties until the age of 74, importantly, there are no gender restriction for this position, so females are entitled to be elected.   Bishops are supposed to appoint pastors (or local clergy), protect and preserve the beliefs of the church and perform ordinations (Heitzenrater, p. 348; Bucke, p. 343). The major characteristic of this denomination is the belief in the universal redemption, under which everyone can be saved, regardless of their ‘earthy’ activities. Other prominent beliefs include: the importance of Christian perfection and spiritual development; the possibility or leaving this church (for another one, or rejecting christian beliefs completely); the priority of faith; the possibility of witnessing the Holy Spirit in this life and the importance of observing sacraments (Baptism and the Lord’s Supper) (Heitzenrater, p. 351). The church has three branches of power – legislative (the General Conference), exeutive (Episcopacy) and judicial (the Judicial Council). The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church was also intended as a religious organization for individuals of color and was established in 1821. The word ‘Zion’ refers to the Biblical teachings and means ‘Church’ (Heitzenrater, p. 398). â€Å"The society of this new denomination called itself the â€Å"Freedom Church† at the time, because the founders decided to dedicate it to the liberation of the human spirit. Spiritual, social and economic freedom were very important to the founders† (Wigger, p. 284). The members of this church share almost the same beliefs as those who belong to the CME, but AME Zion seems to impose more obligations upon its participants, as its statute claims that individuals are basically miserable and therefore should dedicate themselves to serving God in order to receive the real blessing the achieve personal liberty. This denomination is extremely concerned about the religious affairs in African countries and therefore its missionaries regularly visit the corresponding countries. While the CME is administered by bishop, who has the full range of entitlements, the most critical decisions in the AME Zion are taken during the general conference, but the hierarchy and bureaucracy in this denomination are also uncomplicated and actually not exceedingly formalized (Bucke, p. 401). The United Methodist Church is among the largest Protestant denominations (Wigger, p.225 ) , as it has accepted under its roof a number of minor organizations, which nowadays have very low level of autonomy and both officially and factually belong to the single church. â€Å"The United Methodist Church is organized into conferences† (Wigger, p.227).   The General Conference is the most influential organization, entitled to express the opinion of the whole church and to approve decisions and projects. The General Conference is gathered every four years, and each meeting results in the publication of the Book of Resolutions, or additional principles and plans to implement. Jurisdictional and Central Conferences are hierarchically lower and therefore accountable to the General Conference (Kimbrough, p. 118). The main objectives of the jurisdictional meetings (which also take place every four years) are electing bishops as well as chief administrators of the members units and planning basic activities for these executives. The Annual Conference, accordingly, is aimed at appointing minor clearly like pastors and (re-)interpreting the Book of Discipline. â€Å"Annual conferences are further divided into Districts, each served by a District Superintendent. The district superintendents are also appointed annually from the ordained elders of the Annual Conference by the bishop. District superintendents are not superior in ordination to other elders; upon completion of their service a superintendent they   routinely return to serving local congregations† (Kimbrough, p. 119). Importantly, this denomination allows women to serve as bishops and in general observes the same Christian principles as the two above described organizations, based upon the individual salvation and outreach work with the disadvantaged.   On the other hand, the UM is a bureaucratic and formalized organization, which has strict leadership structure and therefore might be at risk of the monopolization of the power by the single participant (Kimbrough, p. 124). As for the clergy of the organization, they are divided into three ‘positions’: bishops, elders and deacons, the last group of religious workers are responsible for technical performance of liturgies and also might be employed as educators, musicians or business administrators, i.e. they can combine their participation in the UM with more secular activities. Elders have the same responsibilities, but the main difference between these two classes of the clergy is the regulation of appointments: deacons have a chance to choose the locality where they wish to serve, whereas elders are assigned directly by the Annual Conference (Kimbrough, p. 130; McEllhenney, p. 429). According to another classification, local pastors are distinguished from the other three categories. Local pastors, conversely to bishops, deacons and elders, are not required to have master’s degree in theology (divinity) or related sciences. In order to avoid the misuse of entitlements in local churches, the conferences can annually make new appointments for all local congregations, but the same deacons, elders and pastors serve at the certain local organization for years. The African Methodist Episcopal Church was established in the 1850s and has almost the same organization as the UM, so the primary decision-making body is the General Conference, during which bishops are elected. â€Å"The bishops are the chief Officers of the Connectional Organization. They are elected for life by a majority vote of the General conference which meets ever four years. Bishops are bound by the laws of the church to retire following their 75th birthday† (Heitzenrater, p. 473). The Council of Bishops is also called the Executive Branch of the denomination, as it is responsible for applying the new statutes, adopted during the General Conference. The Board of Incorporators is the supervisory body that conducts analysis and partial control of the Council’s activities and determines whether they match to the overall religious course, established by the organization. The General Board is the administrative body, responsible for the distribution of material resources and financial affairs of the denomination, so it approves the decisions made by the Council of Bishops and provides the resources needed for applying new rules or principles, building new churches or colleges (this denomination has sixteen higher education institutions). The Judicial Council is charged with resolving the conflicts within the denomination and also dealing with corresponding appellations (McEllhenney, p. 463). The major mission of the AME is supporting the nurturing physical and spiritual development of its congregations as well as the whole society in general. More specific objectives are as follows: â€Å" 1) preaching the gospel; 2) feeding the hungry; 3) clothing the naked; 4) housing the homeless; 5) cheering the fallen; 6) providing jobs for the jobless; 7) administering of the needs of those in prisons, hospitals and nursing homes; 8) encouraging thrift and economic advancement† (McEllhenney, p. 658). In conclusion, it is necessary to summarize the similarities and differences between the denominations. First of all, they have approximately similar beliefs and missions, which necessarily include brotherly aid for those in need and education for the youth: all churches have their own education institutions, which provide holistic training in various disciplines beyond theology. Furthermore, all these churches are concerned about the current political and social affairs and although they do not directly engage into non-religious movements, they always state and publicize their attitudes towards such issues as terrorism, the U.S. trade deficiency and ethnic segregation, moreover, actively help ethnic minorities. As for a parishioner, all churches are comparatively ‘democratic’ in their beliefs and do not place too strict constraints upon the individual’s lifestyle (fasts etc) and skillfully use the principles of social work like the empowerment and reinforcement of community capacities. On the other hand, the united Methodist church and the African Methodist Church have more complicated hierarchical structure and therefore appear more ‘formal’ organizations and therefore have more prescriptions for deacons, elders and pastors, serving for local congregations. All denominations avoid gender discrimination and view females as equal to males in terms of their entitlements. Finally, the CME and the AME Zion appear more sensitive to the recent changes in social life or recent crises, as their responses to the adversities bred by hurricane Katrina were the most rapid,   even though these organizations are much smaller that the others. Works cited 1)Bucke, E. The History of American Methodism. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1964. 2)Heitzenrater, R. Wesley and the People Called Methodists. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995. 3)Kimbrough, D. Reverend Joseph Tarkington, Methodist Circuit Rider. Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press, 1997. 4)McEllhenney, J. United Methodism in America: A Compact History. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1992. 5)Wigger, J. Taking Heaven by Storm: Methodism and the Rise of Popular Christianity in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. How to cite Methodist denominations, Essay examples

Pressure Ulcer Care free essay sample

The aetiology of pressure ulcers is in some parts insubstantial due to the numerous influences that apply to the formation of a pressure ulcer. There are, none the less, a diverse array of contributing factors that have been proven to impair the structure of the skin and disrupt the healing processes, for example heart complications, lack of mobility, nutrition, sensory loss, temperature and age effecting the skins texture and strength. The most significant rationale behind the choice of clinical skill is to assist in the advancement of knowledge base, as Ali amp; Atkin (2004, p. 03) accurately specify, ‘we need to use our increasing knowledge base to transform service provision and provide better primary care’. As health professionals it needs to be realised that we are a vital link between patients and other specialised health care services, Morison (2001, p. 4) points out the importance of, ‘health care professionals as patient advocates in relation to tissue vi ability services’, if we do not make it our duty to be knowledgeable of what options our patients have it is impossible to administer care holistically as if our duty as a health care professional. We will write a custom essay sample on Pressure Ulcer Care or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In recent studies it has shown that pressure ulcers are most prominent with surgical patients, research has also shown that the surgical patient develops a pressure ulcer 8 times more than the non surgical patient (Pulskamp, 2007). Interestingly it shows that not only are pressure ulcers observed in older patients but just as often in the younger ago groups, with an increase in occurrence in those who receive neck and head surgeries (Bader et al, 2005), In a study is it is shown that adaptation to the operating table diminished sharply the incidence of pressure ulcer development. Bader et al found that often Pressure ulcers are observed after 2 weeks of being admitted, this then contradicts the theory that ‘pressure ulcers are caused by inadequate nursing care’, this then can only suggest that pressure ulcers develop during an operation, during periods of treatment or during investigations, for example X-ray departments where the mattresses are not adapted to the variety of different patients with a different variety of problems. To reduce occurrence and risk there must be put in place preventative measures in terms of risk assessments but as Pulskamp (2007) points out, ‘There is no validated tool to predict risk of pressure ulcers in the surgical patient’. There are numerous pressure ulcer risk assessment tools in use, yet none being significantly more preferred than others and each with particular strengths and weaknesses. In 2003 the National Institution for Clinical Excellence produced the guidelines, ‘pressure ulcer risk assessment and prevention, including the use of pressure relieving devices (beds, mattresses and overlays) for the prevention of pressure ulcers in primary and secondary care’. They suggest that in order to maximise the effectiveness of the guidelines, they should be enhanced by implementing them in working partnerships such as tissue viability teams. The aim of the guidelines, as LittleJohns amp; Rawlins (2005, p. 9) highlight, are to ‘inform clinical practice and to direct clinical decision making in order to improve patient outcomes with regard to pressure ulcer prevention and management’. To encourage the use of this guideline the National Institution of Clinical Excellence suggest, ‘incorporating guidance into continuing professional development programmes (in order to) further encourage its use in clinical practice’ (LittleJohns amp; Rawl ins, 2005, p. 100). After initial implementation an audit was arried out which highlighted significant pitfalls in implementation of the guidelines in clinical practice, for example being unable to record timings or risk assessments, repositioning charts not being used and seating assessments n out being carried out, this highlights the need for flexibility in future risk assessments as clinical issues often arise and cannot be avoided in the busy schedules of health care professionals and can often become barriers to the effective implementation there for making the correct use of the guidelines impossible risks unattended concerning the patients. They also voice the fear that the guidelines are simplifying clinical decision making and urge professionals to adopt any particular recommendations in light of such issues as available resources, local policies, patient circumstance and updates research findings. The European Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel quick reference guidelines on prevention for developing pressure ulcers (2009) have a in depth and diverse approach on the assessment of pressure sores and contributing factors, their guidelines investigate not only the treatment of pressure ulcers but use of pressure ulcer prevention devices and wound management with a grading system to reflect the severity of the sore. The advisory panel suggests that, ‘pressure ulcers need to be assessed in the context of the patients overall condition’, they also identify ‘nutrition, pain and psychosocial factors as potential areas of complication, looking into the localization, grade, size, wound bed, exudates, pain and status of the surrounding skin’ (Dealey, 2005, p. 138). One of the pitfalls of this particular assessment strategies is the actual analysis of the pressure ulcer itself, one must have gained adequate back ground knowledge and experience on the analysis of a sore and the most suitable wound management product (for example dressings or antibiotics if the wound appears infected) to truly be able to grade it, Dealey (2005, p. 142) herself discusses, ‘accurate assessment is necessary in order to select a suitable wound management product’.

Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar Essay Example For Students

Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar Essay Tiberius Claudius Nero CaesarTiberius Claudius Nero Caesar was born in Rome on November 16, 42 BC. Four years after his birth his mother divorced his father and married Octavian. Tiberius was a descendant of the Claudian family who moved to Rome shortly afterthe foundation of the city. The Claudians did not respect others who were notof noble ancestry. We will write a custom essay on Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now After Tiberius was four he was raised to be a loyal servant of Augustus. Tiberius is associated with Augustus for 22 years. Augustus had Tiberiuscarefully educated. Augustus later forced Tiberius to dissolve his happymarriage to Vipsania Agrippina and marry Augustus daughter Julia. This wasarranged to better the chance of succession of a descendant of Augustus to takepower. The plan did not work because they did not get along and soon livedseparately. For this reason Tiberius retired to the island of Rhodes where hedevoted himself to study for seven years. When Tiberius returned to Rome in AD26, Julia had been banished for adultery. The death of both of Augustusgrandsons within two years led him to adopt Tiberius as his son and heir. Tiberius then went into active service in northern Germany against theMarcomanni. Tiberius succeeded in securing the northern border with thedangerous German tribes. Tiberius made two more marches into the heart ofGermany. On his return to Rome he was awarded a triumph, the highest officialtribute that was given to honor a victorious warrior. Augustus died in AD 14 and Tuberius assumed sole power of the wholeRoman empire. Tiberius was a large, strong man, and very tall. He had a fairskin complexion that was sometimes subjected to outbreaks of skin disease. According to Suetonius, he wore his hair long in the back. This was an oldfashioned style for the time. Perhaps it was adopted in memory of hisdistinguished ancestry. Tiberius remained in excellent health most of his life. He was formal in manner but it was reported that he indulged in heavy drinkingand sexual activity. He was also well educated in Latin and Greek literature. He also had a strong devotion to astrology. Tiberius took the throne at the age of fifty-six. This was during thelife of Jesus Christ. Although he assumed actual power, he did so unwillinglyand refused most of the titles that the senate offered him. Many people believethat Tiberius was reluctant to become an autocrat. Tiberius began to take firmsteps against foreign beliefs because he thought they were a threat totraditional Roman values. He expelled followers of the Egyptian and Jewishreligions from Rome and banished astrologers. Tiberius believed in astrologyhimself but probably feared a possible conspiracy inspired by horoscopes. Tiberius established a central camp for the Praetorian guard in Rome sothe military could be quickly called to put down civilian violence. Civilianriots were common because of the large population of unemployed that wereprovided for by the public dole. Lucius Aelius Sejanus was in charge of thesetroops and that gave him an enormous amount of potential power. He aspired tomarry Livia Julia, Tiberius daughter, and worked to increase the emperors fearand distrust of other members of his Tiberius family. In AD 26 Tiberius leftRome and withdrew to Campania, and the following year went to the island ofCapri. Tiberius left Rome under the power of Sejanus. Finally realizing thatSejanus was trying to seize the imperial power he sent a carefully worded letterto the senate. The senate read the letter while the unsuspecting Sejanus sat inthe senate chamber. Tiberius bitterly condemned Sejanus. Quick action was thentaken to execute Sejanus and his family. Incidents such as this one gaveTiberius a bad name with the people of Rome and the senate. Tiberius continuedto rule Rome and the empire from the isolation of Capri. Tiberius oftenconfused and baffled the senate with his letters. The senate was frequentlyunable to interpret his mysterious messages. .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 , .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 .postImageUrl , .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 , .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5:hover , .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5:visited , .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5:active { border:0!important; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5:active , .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5 .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub11d8d135c2dd779d3b4f80990e2aed5:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Respect For Our Humanity: EssayTiberius continued to live at Capri. His character was weakened byyears of hard work, worry and intense pressure. According to Suetonius heengaged in a series of perversions. Tiberius grew into a very paranoid andsuspicious man. Since he had outlived his son he decided that his nephew Gaiuswould succeed him. Tiberius died on March 16, AD 37 near Naples. Some believehe was smothered by the prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Instead of mourningthere was celebration. His body was not cremated until April 3. Tiberius wasnot deified during his lifetime or after his death. People take different sides when reflecting on Tiberius rule. Somebelieve that on the whole he was a fairly good emperor. He was able to maintainpeace at home and security along the borders. Tiberius seems to have been anable soldier and administrator who retained the republican form of government asmuch as possible. He did improve civil service, the economy and kept the armyhighly disciplined. Few doubt the fact that after Sejanus death Tiberius becamesuspicious and vengeful. Others feel that Tiberius was cruel and a tyrant. Tacitus was one ofTiberius greatest critics. His writings portrayed a completely evil ruler whoused unlimited power to destroy his enemies. However Tacitus was a believer inthe republic style of rule and hated the empire that replaced it. Tacitusversion of history is what most people remember because of his brilliantwritings. Some maintain more of a middle ground when reflecting on his reign. They feel Tiberius had great military and political abilities. He often usedthese to benefit Rome and provided effective rule for the empire for many years. However the series of plots against him, the hostility of the upper classes, andoverwork caused drastic changes in his personality. The job of ruling theentire Roman Empire was too great a job for any one man to handle. English

Essay on asylum seekers

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Anthropology Concepts Derived from Functionalism and Culture

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In the system, each participant is linked to two partners. One partner trades a necklace in return for an armband of equivalent value. The other makes a reverse exchange of an armband for a necklace. While each Kula partner is tied to only two other partners, each contact has an additional connection on either end of the distribution chain. This eventually forms the Kula Ring and this links more than a dozen islands over hundreds of miles of ocean. Malinowski reasoned that the expense and preoccupation with Kula trade must be functional in nature and most likely served to solve fundamental spatial problems in the Islanders lives. He argued that Kula Ring served three functions in Trobriand society. First, it serves to establish friendly relations among the inhabitants of different islands and maintain a pattern of peaceful contact and communication over great distances with trading partners who might or might not speak the same language. It provides the occasion for the inter-island exchange of utilitarian items. These utilitarian items are shipped back and forth in the course of Kula expeditions. Finally, they reinforce status, since the hereditary chiefs own the most important shell valuables and it is their responsibility for directing ocean voyages. Sahlin Second, symbolic objects and gifts have long been recognized as a form of interartion that can create meaning for group memebers, especially in terms of fostering connection among group memebers or between groups. Polanyi (1944) and Sahlin (1972) showed how, until very recently in human history, was not about gaining profit but about forging and maintaining group solidarity. Marcel mauss: To give, to accept, and to reciprocate. Door Janet T. Landa Malinowski rejected the notion that Kula gift exchanges were motivated by economic considerations. Rather, Malinowksi emphasized that the motives were social and psychological. Thus began a long debate among anthropologists attempting to to unravel the puizzle of the Kula ring. As a result of subsequent work by anthropologists, a view began to crystallize that the instrumental function of the Kula Ring was the creation op political order via the creation of networks of alliances among stateless societeies so as to facilitate commercial trade. This view, implicitly or explicitly, attributed an underlying economic function to Kula gift exchanges and did much to explain a major puzzle of the Kula ring. The anthropological viewpoint – that the Kula gift exchange system creates primitive laws and order in a stateless societies – is consistent with modern PR PC theory, which emphasizeds the importance of institustions in facilitating exchange. Richard Posner (1980) in his ins ightful paper on the economic functions of institutions of primitive societeies, explains the Kula ringa as an institution that facilitated trade. Quoting Belshaw (1965), Posner says: â€Å" The Kula itself wsa not oriented to mindividual trade in ints ceremonial activities. But alonghside the kula persons visiting theru partners took advantage of the oppurtunities to engage in trade. Malinoswki makes point that kula partners would exchange gifts of a trade character in addition to vaygu ‘s (the ornamental objects exchanged in the kula ring), and the szecurity afforded by the partenership would make it possible for the visitor to make contact with other persons in the village and trade with them. An explanation of the Kula ring in terms of its role in facilitating trade, while explaining the major puzzle of the kula ring, leaves unanswered tow other major puzzles of the kula ring – not explained by anthropologist or anyone else. The two puzzled, which this paper will attempt to explain, are 1. Why is the Kula trade organized in the form of a ring of connected partners? and 2. why in the kula ring are there two different ceremonial goods circulating in opposite directions perceptually around the ring? In this chapter we on PR-PC theory of the economics od signaling to develop a theory of the Kula ring that will unravel the Kula puzzles. Fundamental to our theory of the Kula ring is the assumption that transaction costs are positive. The emphasis on the importance of the foundations of modern PR-PC theory and modern monetary theory. Recdently, the insoight that â€Å"institutions matter† in a world with positive transactin costst has been extended to explain certain institutions of primitive societies. The theory of the kula ring presented in this chapter is consisten with the transaction costst approach to intitutions in emphasizing that the kula ring is an institutional arrangement that emerged primarily in orde to economize on transaction costs of intertribal commercial exchange in stateless societies. WAY OF GIVE AND TAKE IN KULA A visiting Kula partner arrives with a â€Å"solicitary gift† (e.g. food) and is given an â€Å"opening gift†, say a necklace, from his host Kula partner, the must be reciprocated woth a counter-gift, an armshell, of equivalent value at a future date. It should be noted that no kula valuables are carried on overseas kula expeditions; the visiting kula partner visits his host partner in order to receive gifts and not to give them. Between any two kula partners, the is an institutionalized delayed reciprocity, involving two opposite kinds of objects. But at the same time, each of these two objects must be passed on in one direction only so that a chain of unidirectional trading kula partners is built up in the kula ring. The global structure of the kula exchange is one that is characterized by cyclical, indirect reciprocation between connected pairs of partners (levi-strauss 1969). Furthermore, a time limit is also prescribed for a recipient of a gift to pass it on to one of his partners: A man who is in the kula, never keeps any article for longer thas, say, a year or tweo. Even this exposes him to the reproach of being â€Å"niggardly† and certain districts have the bad reputationj of being â€Å"slow† and â€Å"hard† in the kula†¦ (Malinowski, 1961). In this Kula gift exchange the equivalence of the closing gift is left to the giver. What are the mechanisms for ensuring that the partners will honor the obligation to reciprocate? Four mechanisms can be identified. 1. Role of â€Å"intermediary gifts†: if a kula partner cannot repay his partner when the latter visits him, he must reciprocate the opening gift with a smaller gift, and â€Å"intermediary gift†, given in token of good faith, which itself must be reciprocated by his partner. Thus the time interval between receiving the opening gift and reciprocating the closing gift is bridged by a series of smaller gift exchanges between Kula partners. 2. Role of reputation: A kula partner who does not repay a gift will eventually lose his reputation and Kula partners. 3. Role of â€Å"give and take† moral code in which the wealthy man is obligated to share wealth: the higher the rank the greater the obligation 4. Role of public magical rites and ceremonial acts: magical rites and public ceremonial acts always accompany an overseas Kula expedition; these rites and ceremonies â€Å"act indirectly on the mind of ones partner and make him soft, insteady in mind and eager to give kula gifts†. Malinowski also suggested the use of sorcery by a kula trader against the defaulting partner. A third set of rules governs membership in the kula ring. Kula exchange is not free exchange between anonymous parties whenever the opportunity arises. Strict rules govern who can enter the Kula ring. To enter the ring, a man must inherit a kula object and magic from his father or mothers brother. Once he obtains a kula object, he can initiate a kula partnership with his fathers or mothers brothers partners or other partners in the kula ring. Once a kula partnership is established, it is a lifelong partnership and is passed on from generation to generation: â€Å" Once in the kula, always in the kula.† Not all East Papuo-Melanasionans in massim, however, can participate in the Kula ring. For example, ceratin â€Å"inferior† sub-clans in Kiriwana are excluded. A man can have few or many partners depending on his rank. A commoner in the trobriands would have a few partners who lived in nearby islands, whereas a chief would have hundreds of partners distributed over several islands. But there is a geographic limit beyond which no kula traders, not even the most influential chief, has any partnerd and the furthest limits of kula partnership are the same for all the memebers of the kula community. Thus, for example, no man in SIneketa has any partners in Kitiva, and no man in S.E. Dobu or Dobu island has Kila partners in Sineketa. Beyond the geographic limit , however, a kula trader still know the mnames of his indirect partners, i.e. the partnersfo his partners.. Participants of the kula ring regard the kula trade as acircular system (Damon 1983). The pattern of kula exchange is ver comples. The simplest structure of exchange would be one in which: If we were to imagin that in the kkula ring, there are many peopke who have only one partern at each side, the the ring would consist of a lartge number of closed circuits, on each of which the same article swould constantly pass. However, the actual structure of the kula exchange is much more complex since Every small kula man , as a a rule, has on one side or the other, the big one, that is a chief. And every chief plays the part of a shunting –station for kula objects. Having so many partners on each side, he constantly transfers an object from one strand to another. EIGEN TEKST (uit boven staande site ge parafraseert) Structure of intertribal commercial trade Anthropologists that studied Malinowskis account of the Kula ring (Campbell 1983; Dalton 1978); Mauss 1979; Sahlins 1969; Uberoi 1971) , feel that Malinowski underestimated the importance of the economical function of the Kula ring, and the way in which it made commercial exchange much easier. Looking closer at the trade process, it is noted that there is a division and specialization of work. Different parties have different specialties for which they are known (e.g. yams, wooden bowls, pots, sago, canoes, etc.), and there is a certain pattern in the different kinds of those finest products that are exchanged between islands in the Kula ring (e.g. yams from the Trobriands against pots from the Amphletts). MAIN POINTS ACCORDING TO MS KOMTER Its all about relationships, social capital. Kula the ring of power, identity/status Identity confirmed by what you receive Will the kula survive ïÆ'   essay question Right of passage Obligations (inner) Generosity ïÆ'   exoectations of return Magic Role of taking risks ïÆ'   negative more important than positive experiences, dare to be courageous. Going through all shit makes you a man. Classical anthropologists and ethnologists like Malinowski, Mauss and Là ©vi-Strauss studied the origins of social order by focusing at a very concrete habit that appears to be wide-spread in archaic society: the exchange of gifts. The principle of give-and-take, or reciprocity, proves to be the main underlying rule, and it is this principle that fulfills a crucial role in creating social ties, trust and community. The exchange of gifts makes possible other types of exchange: of material and nonmaterial goods, services, help and information. These anthropologists not only described the practices of gift giving in great detail but also pointed to their manifold – social, religious, psychological, esthetical, juridical – functions. The functionalist approach exemplified in the work of Malinowski is echoed in Durkheims views on the functions of mechanical and organic solidarity. From the anthropological studies a greater range of possible motives for solidarity can be dis tilled compared to the studies by sociologists. GOOD QUOTES Levi-Strauss: Goods are not only economic commodities but vehicles and instruments for realities of another order: influence, power, sympathy, status, emotion; and the skillful game of exchange consists of a complex totality of maneuvers, conscious or unconscious, in order to gain security and to fortify ones self against risks incurred through alliances and rivalry. Radin 1971: There is no such thing as a free gift Levi-strauss 1969: Exchanges are peacefully resolved wars and wars are the result of unsuccessful transactions.

Gene Therapy for Cancer Essay -- Research Papers

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